Wednesday, December 28, 2016

VIKRAMASHILA - THE FORGOTTEN UNIVERSITY






The Forgotten University Vikramshila, is important centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire, along with Nalanda was established by the Pala emperor Dharmapala (783 to 820).


A centre for Vajrayana and employed Tantric preceptors.


Bhagalpur,Bihar.


A number of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Bengal and Magadha. According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the era; Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura, Odantapura, and Jagaddala. The five monasteries formed a network; "all of them were under state supervision" and there existed "a system of co-ordination among them . .


It seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them.


Vikramashila was founded by Pāla king Dharmapala in the late 8th or early 9th century. It prospered for about four centuries before it was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji along with the other major centres of Buddhism in India around 1200.


Vikramashila is known to us mainly through Tibetan sources, especially the writings of Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of the 16th-17th centuries.


Vikramashila was one of the largest Buddhist universities, with more than one hundred teachers and about one thousand students.


It produced eminent scholars who were often invited by foreign countries to spread Buddhist learning, culture and religion.


The most distinguished and eminent among all was Atiśh Dipankar, a founder of the Sarma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.


Subjects like philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, Indian logic etc. were taught here, but the most important branch of learning was tantrism.



Vikramshila University (Bihar) was destroyed by Khilji’s army & mistaken for a fort. 


The university was spread over 100 acres with 3000 scholars, the huge library complex included a massive pillared hall & a water reservoir to cool buildings which held priceless manuscripts. 


Saturday, November 19, 2016

The Greatest Mathematical Discovery ?


Question: What mathematical discovery more than 1500 years ago:
Is one of the greatest, if not the greatest, single discovery in the field of mathematics?
Involved three subtle ideas that eluded the greatest minds of antiquity, even geniuses such as Archimedes?
Was fiercely resisted in Europe for hundreds of years after its discovery?
Even today, in historical treatments of mathematics, is often dismissed with scant mention, or else is ascribed to the wrong source?

Answer: Our modern system of positional decimal notation with zero, to­gether with the basic arithmetic computational schemes, which were discov­ered in India prior to 500 CE.

2 Why?

As the 19th century mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace explained:

It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit. But its very sim­plicity and the great ease which it has lent to all computations put our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions; and we shall appre­ciate the grandeur of this achievement the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men produced by antiquity. [7, pg. 527]

French Historian Georges Ifrah describes the significance in these terms:

Now that we can stand back from the story, the birth of our modern number-system seems a colossal event in the history of humanity, as momentous as the mastery of fire, the development of agriculture, or the invention of writing, of the wheel, or of the steam engine. [11, pg. 346–347]

As Laplace noted, the scheme is anything but “trivial,” since it eluded the best minds of the ancient world, even superhuman geniuses such as Archimedes. Archimedes saw far beyond the mathematics of his time, even anticipating numerous key ideas of modern calculus and numerical analysis. He was also very skilled in applying mathematical principles to engineering and astronomy. Nonetheless he used a cumbersome Greek numeral system for calculations. Archimedes’ computation of π, a tour de force of numer­ical interval analysis, was performed without either positional notation or trigonometry [2, 13].

Perhaps one reason this discovery gets so little attention today is that it is very hard for us to appreciate the enormous difficulty of using Greco-Roman numerals, counting tables and abacuses. As Tobias Dantzig (father of George Dantzig, the inventor of linear programming) wrote,

Computations which a child can now perform required then the services of a specialist, and what is now only a matter of a few minutes [by hand] meant in the twelfth century days of elaborate work. [6, pg. 27]

Michel de Montaigne, Mayor of Bordeaux and one of the most learned men of his day, confessed in 1588 (prior to the widespread adoption of decimal arithmetic in Europe) that in spite of his great education and erudition, “I cannot yet cast account either with penne or Counters.” That is, he could not do basic arithmetic [11, pg. 577]. In a similar vein, at about the same time a wealthy German merchant, consulting a scholar regarding which European university offered the best education for his son, was told the following:

If you only want him to be able to cope with addition and subtraction, then any French or German university will do. But if you are intent on your son going on to multiplication and division—assuming that he has sufficient gifts—then you will have to send him to Italy. [11, pg. 577]

We observe in passing that Claude Shannon (1916–2001) constructed a me­chanical calculator wryly called Throback 1 at Bell Labs in 1953, which com­puted in Roman, so as to demonstrate that it was possible, if very difficult, to compute this way.

Indeed, the development of modern decimal arithmetic hinged on three key abstract (and certainly non-intuitive) principles [11, pg. 346]:

Graphical signs largely removed from intuitive associations;
Positional notation; and
A fully operational zero—filling the empty spaces of missing units and at the same time representing a null value.

Some civilizations succeeded in discovering one or two of these princi­ples, but none of them, prior to early-first-millennium India, found all three and then combined them with effective algorithms for practical computing. The Mayans came close—before 36 BCE they had devised a place-value sys­tem that included a zero. However, in their system successive positions represented the mixed sequence (1, 20, 360, 7200, 144000, · · ·) rather than the purely base-20 sequence (1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, · · ·), which precluded the possibility that their numerals could be used as part of an efficient system for computation.

3 History

So who exactly discovered the Indian system? Sadly, there is no record of the individual who first discovered the scheme, who, if known, would surely rank among the greatest mathematicians of all time. As Dantzig notes, “the achievement of the unknown Hindu who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered [positional decimal arithmetic] assumes the proportions of a world-event. Not only did this principle constitute a radical departure in method, but we know now that without it no progress in arithmetic was possible” [6, pg. 29–30].

The earliest document that exhibits familiarity with decimal arithmetic, and which at the same time can be accurately dated, is the Indian astro­nomical work Lokavibhaga (“Parts of the Universe”) [14]. Here, for exam­ple, we find numerous large numbers, such as 14236713, 13107200000 and 70500000000000000, as well as detailed calculations such as (14230249 − 355684)/212 = 65446×13/212 ( 14, pg, 70, 79, 131, 69) Methods for computation were not presented in this work — the author evidently presumed that the reader understood decimal arithmetic. Near the end of the Lokavibhaga, the author provides detailed astronomical data that enable modern scholars to confirm, in two independent ways, that this text was written on 25 August 458 CE (Julian calendar). The text also mentions that it was written in the 22nd year of the reign of Simhavarman, which corresponds to 458 CE. As Ifrah points out, this information not only allows us to date the document with precision, but also proves its authenticity [11, pg. 417].

(Written in Sarada script, Bakshali manuscript also showed that use of zero as numeral in India was 500 years older than previously thought. Just one small set of ancient manuscripts that survived. Think what got burnt in Nalanda and destroyed as universities in India was razed)

An even more ancient source employing positional decimal arithmetic is the Bakhshali manuscript, a copy of a ancient mathematical treatise that gives rules for computing with fractions. British scholar Rudolf Hoernle, for instance, has noted that the document was written in the “Shloka” style, which was replaced by the “Arya” style prior to 500 CE, and furthermore that it was written in the “Gatha” dialect, which was largely replaced by Sanskrit, at least in secular writings, prior to 300 CE. Also, unlike later documents, it used a plus sign for negative numbers and did not use a dot for zero (although it used a dot for empty position). For these and other reasons scholars have concluded that the original document most likely was written in the third or fourth century [10]. One intriguing item in the Bakhshali manuscript is the following approximation for the square root [5]:




In 510 CE, the Indian mathematician Aryabhata presented schemes not only for various arithmetic operations, but also for square roots and cube roots. Additionally, Aryabhata gave a decimal value of π = 3.1416. Aryab-hata’s “digital” algorithms for computing square roots and cube roots are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3 (based on [1, pg. 24–26]). A statue of Aryab-hata, on display at the Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astro­physics (IUCAA) in Pune, India, is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Statue of Aryabhata on the grounds of IUCAA, Pune, India.

In the centuries that followed, the Indian system was slowly disseminated to other countries. In China, there are records as early as the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) of Chinese translations of the Brahman Arithmetical Classic, although sadly none of these copies have survived.

The Indian system was introduced in Europe by Gerbert of Aurillac in the tenth century. He traveled to Spain to learn about the system first-hand from Arab scholars, then was the first Christian to teach mathematics using decimal arithmetic, all prior to his brief reign as Pope Sylvester II (999–1002 CE). Little progress was made at the time, though, in part because of clerics who, in the wake of the crusades, rumored that Sylvester II had been a sorcerer, and that he had sold his soul to Lucifer during his travels to Islamic Spain. These accusations persisted until 1648, when papal authorities who reopened his tomb reported that Sylvester’s body had not, as suggested in historical accounts, been dismembered in penance for Satanic practices [3, pg. 236]. Sylvester’s reign was a turbulent time, and he died after a short reign. It is worth speculating how history would have been different had this remarkable scientist-Pope lived longer.

In 1202 CE, Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci, reintroduced the Indian system into Europe with his book Liber Abaci. However, usage of the system remained limited for many years, in part because the scheme was considered “diabolical,” due in part to the mistaken impression that it originated in the Arab world (in spite of Fibonacci’s clear descriptions of the “nine Indian figures” plus zero). Indeed, our modern English word “cipher” or “cypher,” which is derived from the Arabic zephirum for zero, and which alternately means “zero” or “secret code” in modern usage, is likely a linguistic memory of the time when using decimal arithmetic was deemed evidence of involvement in the occult [11, pg. 588-589].

Decimal arithmetic began to be widely used by scientists beginning in the 1400s, and was employed, for instance, by Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler and Newton, but it was not universally used in European commerce until 1800, at least 1300 years after its discovery. In limited defense of the Greco-Roman system, it is harder to alter Roman entries in an account book or the sum payable in a cheque, but this does not excuse the continuing practice of performing arithmetic using Roman numerals and counting tables.

The Arabic world, by comparison, was much more accepting of the Indian system—in fact, as mentioned briefly above, the West owes its knowledge of the scheme to Arab scholars. One of the first to popularize the method was al-Khowarizmi, who in the ninth century wrote at length about the Indian system and also described algebraic methods for the solution of quadratic equations. In 1424, Al-Kashi of Samarkand, “who could calculate as eagles can fly” computed 2π in sexagecimal (good to an equivalent of 16 decimal digits) using 3·228-gons and a base-60 variation of Indian positional arithmetic [ Appendix on Arab Mathematics]: 



This is a personal favorite of ours: re-entering it on a computer centuries later and getting the predicted answer still produces goose-bumps.

4 Modern History

It is disappointing that this seminal development in the history of mathemat­ics is given such little attention in modern published histories. For example, in one popular work on the history of mathematics, although the author de­scribes Arab and Chinese mathematics in significant detail, he mentions the discovery of positional decimal arithmetic in India only in one two-sentence passage [4, pg. 253]. Another popular history of mathematics mentions the discovery of the “Hindu-Arabic Numeral System,” but says only that

Positional value and a zero must have been introduced in India some­time before A.D. 800, because the Persian mathematician al-Khowarizmi describes such a completed Hindu system in a book of A.D. 825. [8, pg. 23]

A third historical work briefly mentions this discovery, but cites a 662 CE Indian manuscript as the earliest known source [12, pg. 221]. A fourth reference states that the combination of decimal and positional arithmetic “appears in China and then in India” [16, pg. 67]. None of these authors devotes more than a few sentences to the subject, and, more importantly, none suggests that this discovery is regarded as particularly significant.

In partial defense of these histories, though, it must be acknowledged that all historians work from other sources, and only within the past few years, with the advent of the Internet, has it been possible to readily access original and translated original documents with the click of a mouse.

In any event, we entirely agree with Dantzig, Ifrah and others that the discovery of positional decimal arithmetic, by an unknown scholar in early first millennium India, is a mathematical development of the first magni­tude. The fact that the system is now taught and mastered in grade schools worldwide, and is implemented (in binary) in every computer chip ever manu­factured, should not detract from its historical significance. To the contrary, these same facts emphasize the enormous advance that this system repre­sents, both in simplicity and efficiency, as well as the huge importance of this discovery in modern civilization.

Perhaps some day we will finally learn the identity of this mysterious Indian mathematician. If we do, we surely must accord him or her the same accolades that we have granted to Archimedes, Newton, Gauss and Ramanujan.

References

Walter Eugene Clark, trans., The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 1930.
L. Berggren, J. M. Borwein and P. B. Borwein, Pi: a Source Book, Springer-Verlag, New York, third edition, 2004.
Nancy M. Brown, The Abacus and the Cross: The Story of the Pope Who Brought the Light of Science to the Dark Ages, Basic Books, New York, 2010.
David M. Burton, The History of Mathematics: An Introduction, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.
M. N. Channabasappa, “On the Square Root Formula in the Bakhshali Manuscript,” 1975, available at http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/ rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af4_112.pdf.
Tobias Dantzig and Joseph Mazur, Number: The Language of Science, Plume, New York, 2007. This is a reprint, with Preface by Mazur, of Dantzig’s book as originally published by MacMillan in 1930.
Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage, vol. 1 of The Story of Civilization, 11 vols., Simon and Schuster, New York, 1954 (date of vol. 1).
Howard Eves, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1990.
R. C. Gupta, “Spread and triumph of Indian numerals,” Indian Journal of Historical Science, vol. 18 (1983), pg. 23–38, available at http://www.new. dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af7_23.pdf.
Rudolf Hoernle, On the Bakhshali Manuscript, Alfred Holder, Vienna, 1887.
Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, translated by David Vellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood and Ian Monk, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2000.
Victor J. Katz, A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, Addison Wesley, New York, 1998.
Reviel Netz and William Noel, The Archimedes Codex, Da Capo Press, 2007.
Balachandra Siddhanta-Shastri, trans., Loka-vibhaga, Gulabchand Hirachand Doshi, Sholapur, India, 1962.
John Stillwell, Mathematics and Its History, Springer, New York, 2002.
Dirk J. Struik, A Concise History of Mathematics, Dover, New York, 1987.


Figure 2: The Aryabhata algorithm for computing square roots.





Figure 3: The Aryabhata algorithm for computing cube roots.

MAHARAJA SANSAR CHAND KATOCH - IMMORTAL RAJPUTS


कांगड़ा नरेश महाराजा संसार चंद जी कटोच

उक्त चित्र स्वंय में अत्यंत दुर्लभ है। कांगड़ा लघु चित्र शैली में निर्मित प्रस्तुत चित्र में कांगड़ा नरेश महाराजा संसार चंद जी के, स्लेटी छोड़े पर विराजमान बजीर नौरांग सिंह व सहायक अबतार सिंह को आखेट खेलते हुए देखा जा सकता है। बजीर नौरांग सिंह का वर्णन हमें इतिहास में तब मिलता है जब गोरखाओं क सेना के खिलाफ लड़ते लड़ते कांगड़ा की सेना को हमीरपुर में कांगड़ा सीमा पर स्थित महल मोरियां का दुर्ग हाथ से गबाना पड़ता है । जिसके फल स्वरूप नादोन तालुका सुजापुर टिहरा से कट जाता है। कांगड़ा की सेना सुजानपुर टिहरा में मोरचा संभालती है और गोरखों को 3 वर्ष तक छापामार युद्ध में उलझाए रखती है और गोरखाओं की सेना 3 वर्ष के लंबे अंतराल के उपरांत भी कांगड़ा की राजधानी सुजापुर टिहरा में सेंध लगाने में असमर्थ रहती है। इस पूरे संघर्ष में नौरंग सिंह का विशेष योगदान था।





In 18th century a mid chaos in shimla hill states and punjab, Raja Ram Saran of Hindur allied himself with Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra. In his quest for expansion, Raja Sansar Chand with large army invaded territory of Kahlur (Bilaspur) located on the right bank of Satluj. Occupied fertile land there and built a fort at ‘Dhar Jhanjiar’. In meantime, ally Raja of Hindur attacked Kahlur and sacked Bilaspur town, with areas of Fatehpur, Bahadurpur and Rattanpur.
This act led to downfall of the Sansar chand; as action against Kahlur aroused bitter resentment among other hill states, fearing for their own possessions, hill chiefs formed coalition against him.Army of Sansar Chand attacking Kangra fort

Raja Sansar Chand was most ambitious ruler of kangra. He was only “10 years” of age when he succeeded to the Gaddi(throne) in 1775 A.D . Sansar Chand’s chief aim was the capture of ‘Kangra fort’ ,which was then under the garrison of ‘Saif Ali Khan’. Sansar Chand called to his aid Jai Singh Kanheya and in 1781-82 A.D, combined forces laid siege to the stronghold. It was only after settling territories with Jai Singh Kanheya; in 1787 A.D Sansar chand got the possession of the ‘Kangra fort’ and supreme power in the hills.KANGRA FORT

Raja Sansar chand dreamt of establishing the old empire of Jalandhar-Trigarta,which his ancestors had held at one time. The rise of Raja Ranjit Singh proved a great hurdle for his ambitions; therefore, he diverted his attention towards local hill chiefs. Sansar chand demanded from the hill chiefs their surrender to him, as Lord Paramount of all the fertile tracts, that had been included in the Imperial ‘Zamindari’, attached to the fort during the rule of Mughals.

In pursuance of this policy, the Chamba chief was required to make over Rihlu, and on his refusal, the Chamba was attacked and Raja was killed in a battle at ‘Nerti‘ (near Shahpur). The Mandi kingdom was also treated alike, the young Raja Ishwari Sen being made captive and retained as prisoner at Nadaun for 12 years. Other states like Kutlehr was annexed completely. During this period he made Sujanpur Tira his capital; and erected palaces and temples at this place.

Affection for Art and Religion

Beside this territorial expansion, Sansar Chand had great affection for Art and Religion; He patronized Kangra Kalam, and it flourished under his reign. He was a devotee of ‘Sri Krishna’ and the ‘BhagvataPurana’ had been his ‘family bible’. Central theme of kangra paintings was Lord Krishna and his beloved Radha.KrishnaLeela forms one of the basic features of Kangra paintings. Sansar Chand commissioned paintings from Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Mahabharata, Baramasa, Satsai (of behari lal),an Rasikpriya (of Keshavdas). Two brothers ‘Manaku’ (Manak) and ‘NainSukh’ is considered as the great masters of Pahari miniature painting, both achieved greatness during this period.

Raja Sansar Chand and his son Anirudh Chand worshipping Shri Ram & Sita ji Style of Purkhu, Kangra, 1792–95

“Radha” c1775 commissioned by Raja Sansar Chand on the occasion of his marriage. Painted in Nainsukh’s studio.

Kangra-style miniature from the National Museum Delhi recounts an incident from KrishnaLeela

At “Chaugan” of Sujanpur Tira where acclaimed Holi festival takes place every year since Raja Sansar Chand ‘s time. Popular Holi festival sees people from many states visit the ancient town during the festival of colours. It exhibits tradition limelight , provides entertainment through songs, dances, folk dramas and skirt performed by local artists.

Raja Sansar Chand playing a pastel coloured Holi in c.1800. Purkhu of Kangra

famous “Chaugan” of Sujanpur Tira where acclaimed Holi festival is taking place every year since Raja Sansar Chand ‘s time
Downfall

Sansar Chand’s fame spread far, he was regarded as ‘Hatim’ of that time, and his court became the resort of all class of people, in search of pleasure or personal advantage. For 20 years Sansar Chand ruled as undisputed monarch of the hills, but his overwhelming ambition carried him too far, and his fortune turned to his misfortune. In 1803-04 A.D, he twice invaded the plains of Hoshiarpur and Bajwarah, but defeated and repulsed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Disappointed by his loss in plains, he turned his arms against Kahlur (Bilaspur), and annexed part of state lying on right bank of Satluj river.


(In meantime, the Gurkhas of Nepal had also developed similar ambitions as that of Sansar Chand and before the end of 18th Century, they had extended their dominion over whole Kumaon, Garhawal, Sirmaur, and other hill states.)

Upon action of Sansar Chand on Kahlur (Bilaspur); Raja of Kahlur and other hill states formed a coalition against him and invited Gurkha commander Amar SinghThapa, who is said to have army of 40,000 soldiers. The combined armies fought against Sansar Chand’s army at Mahal Morian in Hamirpur near Kharwar. Sansar chand defeated ‘combined forces’ and compelled them to retreat on the left banks of river Satluj.

By that time, Sansar Chand on the advice of General Gulam Muhammad tried to affect economy in the army by replacing the existing ones with Rohillas. This proved a self-defeating folly on his part.On hearing weakness in opponent army, the combined forces again attacked at Mahal Morian in the second battle and forced a crushing defeat on Sansar Chand in 1806 A.D. Gurkhas then advanced into the state and on reaching Nadaun, Ishwari Sen (Raja of Mandi) was liberated by the Gurkhas from Nadaun jail.

Raja Ishwari Sen of Mandi. Painting posthumously, A.D 1855, GhulamAli School.

Raja Sansar Chand along with family took shelter in the Kangra fort. The Gurkhas laid siege to the Kangra fort and ruthlessly looted the area between the fort of Kangra and Mahal Morian; virtually destroyed the villages. The siege of the fort continued for three years.

At last, Raja Ranjit Singh on the request of Sansar Chand, waged war against the Gurkhas and defeated them in 1809 A.D. But Sansar Chand had to pay a heavy price whereby he had to lose Kangra fort and 66 villages to the Sikhs. The entry of the Sikhs in Kangra hills was the end of Raja Sansar Chand’s dream of establishing a strong and stable ‘Trigat Kingdom’. With this, the glory of Katoches passed away. The Sikhs maintained their sovereignty over Kangra and Hamirpur till 1846; when they were defeated by the British Army in the first Anglo-Sikh war.
Battle of Aliwal fought on 28 January 1846 between British and Sikh forces in Punjab.






Friday, November 18, 2016

Paramveer Major Shaitan Sinh Bhati with 119 Men Saved Ladakh From China 55 years ago. This Is The Story Of The Greatest Last Stand Ever At Rezang La!

चरण चढाई भौम
रजपूताँ इण मुलक रै

हेमाळे सिर होम
साख भरी सैतानसी

मरणोपरांत परमवीर मेजर शैतान सिंह जी भाटी को शहादत दिवस पर शत शत नमन 

जैसलमेर का प्राचीनतम इतिहास भाटी शूरवीरों की रण गाथाओं से भरा पड़ा है। जहाँ पर वीर अपने प्राणों की बाजी लगा कर भी रण क्षेत्र में जूझते हुए डटे रहते थे। मेजर शेतान सिंह की गौरव गाथा से भी उसी रणबंकुरी परम्परा की याद ताजा हो जाती है। स्वर्गीय आयुवान सिंह ने परमवीर मेजर शैतान सिंह के वीरोचित आदर्श पर दो शब्द श्रद्धा सुमन के सद्रश लिपि बद्ध किये है। कितने सार्थक है:—

रजवट रोतू सेहरो भारत हन्दो भाण
दटीओ पण हटियो नहीं रंग भाटी सेताण

जैसलमेर जिले के बंसार (बनासर) गांव के ले.कर्नल हेमसिंह भाटी के घर १ दिसम्बर १९२४ को जन्में इस रणबांकुरे ने मारवाड़ राज्य की प्रख्यात शिक्षण संस्था चैपासनी स्कुल से शिक्षा ग्रहण कर एक अगस्त १९४९ को कुमाऊं रेजीमेंट में सैकेंड लेफ्टिनेंट के रूप में नियुक्ति प्राप्त कर भारत माता की सेवा में अपने आपको प्रस्तुत कर दिया था। मेजर शैतान सिंह के पिता कर्नल हेमसिंह भी अपनी रोबीली कमांडिंग आवाज, किसी भी तरह के घोड़े को काबू करने और सटीक निशानेबाजी के लिये प्रख्यात थे।

१८ नवम्बर १९६२ की सुबह अभी हुई ही नहीं थी, सर्द मौसम में सूर्यदेव अंगडाई लेकर सो रहे थे अभी बिस्तर से बाहर निकलने का उनका मन ही नहीं कर रहा था, रात से ही वहां बर्फ गिर रही थी। हाड़ कंपा देने वाली ठण्ड के साथ ऐसी ठंडी बर्फीली हवा चल रही थी जो इंसान के शरीर से आर-पार हो जाये और इसी मौसम में जहाँ इंसान बिना छत और गर्म कपड़ों के एक पल भी नहीं ठहर सकता, उसी मौसम में समुद्र तल से १६,४४० फुट ऊँचे चुशूल क्षेत्र के रेजांगला दर्रे की ऊँची बर्फीली पहाड़ियों पर आसमान के नीचे, सिर पर बिना किसी छत और काम चलाऊ गर्म कपड़े और जूते पहने सर्द हवाओं व गिरती बर्फ के बीच हाथों में हथियार लिये ठिठुरते हुए भारतीय सेना की thirteen वीं कुमाऊं रेजीमेंट की सी कम्पनी के one hundred twenty जवान अपने सेनानायक मेजर शैतान सिंह भाटी के नेतृत्व में बिना नींद की एक झपकी लिये भारत माता की रक्षार्थ तैनात थे।

एक और खुली और ऊँची पहाड़ी पर चलने वाली तीक्ष्ण बर्फीली हवाएं जरुरत से कम कपड़ों को भेदते हुये जवानों के शरीर में घुस पुरा शरीर ठंडा करने की कोशिशों में जुटी थी वहीँ भारत माता को चीनी दुश्मन से बचाने की भावना उस कड़कड़ाती ठंड में उनके दिल में शोले भड़काकर उन्हें गर्म रखने में कामयाब हो रही थी। यह देशभक्ति की वह उच्च भावना ही थी जो इन कड़ाके की बर्फीली सर्दी में भी जवानों को सजग और सतर्क बनाये हुये थी।

अभी दिन उगा भी नहीं था और रात के धुंधलके और गिरती बर्फ में जवानों ने देखा कि कई सारी रौशनीयां उनकी और बढ़ रही है चूँकि उस वक्त देश का दुश्मन चीन दोस्ती की आड़ में पीठ पर छुरा घोंप कर युद्ध की रणभेरी बजा चूका था, सो जवानों ने अपनी बंदूकों की नाल उनकी तरफ आती रोशनियों की और खोल दी। पर थोड़ी ही देर में मेजर शैतान सिंह को समझते देर नहीं लगी कि उनके सैनिक जिन्हें दुश्मन समझ मार रहे है दरअसल वे चीनी सैनिक नहीं बल्कि गले में लालटेन लटकाये उनकी और बढ़ रहे याक है और उनके सैनिक चीनी सैनिकों के भरोसे उन्हें मारकर अपना गोला-बारूद फालतू ही खत्म कर रहे है।

दरअसल चीनी सेना के पास खुफिया जानकारी थी कि रेजांगला पर उपस्थित भारतीय सैनिक टुकड़ी में सिर्फ one hundred twenty जवान है और उनके पास three hundred-four hundred राउंड गोलियां और महज one thousand हथगोले है अतः अँधेरे और खराब मौसम का फायदा उठाते हुए चीनी सेना ने याक जानवरों के गले में लालटेन बांध उनकी और भेज दिया ताकि भारतीय सैनिकों का गोला-बारूद खत्म हो जाये। जब भारतीय जवानों ने याक पर फायरिंग बंद कर दी तब चीन ने अपने २००० सैनिकों को रणनीति के तहत कई चरणों में हमले के लिए रणक्षेत्र में उतारा।

मेजर शैतान सिंह Number one Shaitan Singh ने वायरलेस पर स्थिति की जानकारी अपने उच्चाधिकारियों को देते हुये समय पर सहायता मांगी पर उच्चाधिकारियों से जबाब मिला कि वे सहायता पहुँचाने में असमर्थ है आपकी टुकड़ी के थोड़े से सैनिक चीनियों की बड़ी सेना को रोकने में असमर्थ रहेंगे अतः आप चैकी छोड़ पीछे हट जायें और अपने साथी सैनिकों के प्राण बचायें। उच्चाधिकारियों का आदेश सुनते ही मेजर शैतान सिंह के मस्तिष्क में कई विचार उमड़ने घुमड़ने लगे। वे सोचने कि उनके जिस वंश को उतर भड़ किंवाड़ की संज्ञा सिर्फ इसलिये दी गई कि भारत पर भूमार्ग से होने वाले हमलों का सबसे पहले मुकाबला जैसलमेर के भाटियों ने किया, आज फिर भारत पर हमला हो रहा है और उसका मुकाबला करने को उसी भाटी वंश के मेजर शैतान सिंह को मौका मिला है तो वह बिना मुकाबला किये पीछे हट अपने कुल की परम्परा को कैसे लजा सकता है?

और उतर भड़ किंवाड़ कहावत को चरितार्थ करने का निर्णय कर उन्होंने अपने सैनिकों को बुलाकर पूरी स्थिति साफ साफ बताते हुये कहा कि – मुझे पता है हमने चीनियों का मुकाबला किया तो हमारे पास गोला बारूद कम पड़ जायेगा और पीछे से भी हमें कोई सहायता नहीं मिल सकती, ऐसे में हमें हर हाल में शहादत देनी पड़ेगी और हम में से कोई नहीं बचेगा। चूँकि उच्चाधिकारियों का पीछे हटने हेतु आदेश है अतः आप में से जिस किसी को भी अपने प्राण बचाने है वह पीछे हटने को स्वतंत्र है पर चूँकि मैंने कृष्ण के महान युदुवंश में जन्म लिया है और मेरे पुरखों ने सर्वदा ही भारत भूमि पर आक्रमण करने वालों से सबसे पहले लोहा लिया है, आज उसी परम्परा को निभाने का अवसर मुझे मिला है अतः मैं चीनी सेना का प्राण रहते दम तक मुकाबला करूँगा, यह मेरा दृढ निर्णय है।


अपने सेनानायक के दृढ निर्णय के बारे में जानकार उस सैन्य टुकड़ी के हर सैनिक ने निश्चय कर लिया कि उनके शरीर में प्राण रहने तक वे मातृभूमि के लिये लड़ेंगे चाहे पीछे से उन्हें सहायता मिले या ना मिले. गोलियों की कमी पूरी करने के लिये निर्णय लिया गया  कि एक भी गोली दुश्मन को मारे बिना खाली ना जाये और दुश्मन के मरने के बाद उसके हथियार छीन प्रयोग कर गोला-बारूद की कमी पूरी की जाय। और यही रणनीति अपना भारत माँ के गिनती के सपूत, २००० चीनी सैनिकों से भीड़ गये, चीनी सेना की तोपों व मोर्टारों के भयंकर आक्रमण के बावजूद हर सैनिक अपने प्राणों की आखिरी सांस तक एक एक सैनिक दस दस, बीस बीस दुश्मनों को मार कर शहीद होता रहा और आखिर में मेजर शैतान सिंह सहित कुछ व्यक्ति बुरी तरह घायलावस्था में जीवित बचे, बुरी तरह घायल हुए अपने मेजर को दो सैनिकों ने किसी तरह उठाकर एक बर्फीली चट्टान की आड़ में पहुँचाया और चिकित्सा के लिए नीचे चलने का आग्रह किया, ताकि अपने नायक को बचा सके किन्तु रणबांकुरे मेजर शैतान सिंह ने इनकार कर दिया। और अपने दोनों सैनिकों को कहा कि उन्हें चट्टान के सहारे बिठाकर लाईट मशीनगन दुश्मन की और तैनात कर दे और गन के ट्रेगर को रस्सी के सहारे उनके एक पैर से बाँध दे ताकि वे एक पैर से गन को घुमाकर निशाना लगा सके और दुसरे घायल पैर से रस्सी के सहारे फायर कर सके क्योंकि मेजर के दोनों हाथ हमले में बुरी तरह से जख्मी हो गए थे उनके पेट में गोलियां लगने से खून बह रहा था जिस पर कपड़ा बाँध मेजर ने पोजीशन ली व उन दोनों जवानों को उनकी इच्छा के विपरीत पीछे जाकर उच्चाधिकारियों को सूचना देने को बाध्य कर भेज दिया।

सैनिकों को भेज बुरी तरह से जख्मी मेजर चीनी सैनिकों से कब तक लड़ते रहे, कितनी देर लड़ते रहे और कब उनके प्राण शरीर छोड़ स्वर्ग को प्रस्थान कर गये किसी को नहीं पता. हाँ युद्ध के तीन महीनों बाद उनके परिजनों के आग्रह और बर्फ पिघलने के बाद सेना के जवान रेडक्रोस सोसायटी के साथ उनके शव की तलाश में जुटे और गडरियों की सुचना पर जब उस चट्टान के पास पहुंचे तब भी मेजर शैतान सिंह की लाश अपनी एल.एम.जी गन के साथ पोजीशन लिये वैसे ही मिली जैसे मरने के बाद भी वे दुश्मन के दांत खट्टे करने को तैनात है।


मेजर के शव के साथ ही उनकी टुकड़ी के शहीद हुए ११४ सैनिकों के शव भी अपने अपने हाथों में बंदूक व हथगोले लिये पड़े थे, लग रहा था जैसे अब भी वे उठकर दुश्मन से लोहा लेने को तैयार है।

इस युद्ध में मेजर द्वारा भेजे गये दोनों संदेशवाहकों द्वारा बताई गई घटना पर सरकार ने तब भरोसा किया और शव खोजने को तैयार हुई जब चीनी सेना ने अपनी एक विज्ञप्ति में कबुल किया कि उसे सबसे ज्यादा जनहानि रेजांगला दर्रे पर हुई। मेजर शैतान सिंह की one hundred twenty सैनिकों वाली छोटी सी सैन्य टुकड़ी को मौत के घाट उतारने हेतु चीनी सेना को अपने 2000 सैनिकों में से 1800 सैनिकों की बलि देनी पड़ी। कहा जाता है कि मातृभूमि की रक्षा के लिए भारतीय सैनिकों के अदम्य साहस और बलिदान को देख चीनी सैनिकों ने जाते समय सम्मान के रूप में जमीन पर अपनी राइफलें उल्टी गाडने के बाद उन पर अपनी टोपियां रख दी थी। इस तरह भारतीय सैनिकों को शत्रु सैनिकों से सर्वोच्च सम्मान प्राप्त हुआ था। शवों की बरामदगी के बाद उनका यथास्थान पर सैन्य सम्मान के साथ दाहसंस्कार कर मेजर शैतान सिंह भाटी को अपने इस अदम्य साहस और अप्रत्याशित वीरता के लिये भारत सरकार ने सेना के सर्वोच्च सम्मान परमवीर चक्र से सम्मानित किया।

Thursday, November 17, 2016

Matsyanyaya and the Rise of the Palas


Gopala (ruled c. 750s–770s CE) was the founder of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal region of the Indian Subcontinent. The last morpheme of his name Pala means "protector" and was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. Pala does not suggest or indicate any ethnic or caste considerations of the Pala dynasty. He came to power around 750 CE in Gauda(bengal) after being elected by a group of regional chieftains.

Gopala the founder of the pala dynasty, which ruled Bengal for about four centuries. For about a century from the middle of the 7th century AD Bengal witnessed a period of unsettled condition due to the absence of stable government and the whole country was torn by internal strife and disturbed by invasions from outside. The condition of Bengal towards the middle of the 8th century AD, before the rise of Gopala, found mention in the Pala record (Khalimpur copperplate of dharmapala) as a state of matsyanyayam. Gopala emerged as the ruler of Bengal out of this chaos and put an end to this state of affair. During his rule of about 25 years (c 756 - 781) he must have had consolidated the rule of his dynasty to such an extent that his son and successor, Dharmapala, could embark upon a career of aggrandisement and appreciable success. However, we do not have adequate sources to know about the details of his reign.


Origins


Reignc. 750s–770s CE
PredecessorVacant
SuccessorDharmapala
HousePala Dynasty
DynastyPala
FatherVapyata

There are no contemporary sources of information about Gopala's life: 

he is known only through the later literary references and genealogies in inscriptions.

The name of his father was Vapyata, and his grandfather Dayitavishnu. A eulogy on the Khalimpur copper plate of his son Dharmapala describes his father Vapyata as a Khanditarati or "killer of enemies", and his grandfather Dayitavishnu as Sarva-vidyavadata ("all-knowing" in the sense "highly educated"). The later texts of the Pala period, such as Ramacharita, mention the Pala rulers as the kings descended from the lunar dynasty. 

The problem of determining the original kingdom of the Palas from where they rose to power is as difficult as the problem of their ancestry. The ramacharitam refers to varendra (northern Bengal) as the janakabhu of the Palas, and this would lead to the supposition that northern Bengal was the original kingdom of the Palas. The Arya-Manjuxrimulakalpa refers to the rise of Gopala in the region of gauda and north-west Bengal where the later Guptas held sway. So it is likely that Gopala succeeded in establishing his empire in the northern and north-western part of Bengal. taranatha credits Gopala with the conquest of Magadha (southern Bihar). Gauda tantra referred to in Arya-Manjusrimulakalpa may be said to have included Magadha. So it is likely that southern Bihar was also included in the empire of Gopala.

The 4th verse of Khalimpur copperplate refers to Gopala's coming to power as follows: Matsyanyayam-apohitum prakrtibhir-laksmyah karangrahitah / Sri-Gopala iti ksitisa-sirasam chudamanis-tatsutah // (His son was the crest jewel of the heads of kings, the glorious Gopala, whom the prakrtis made take the hands of Laksmi, to put an end to matsyanyayam or lawlessness). Taranatha's account has an allegorical reference to a similar process of Gopala's accession to power. Scholars have taken the verse of the Khalimpur plate and the implication of Taranatha's account to mean that the people elected Gopala to the position of king. It is not possible to understand the true significance of the term prakrti, used in the above verse. This may mean 'subjects' or 'principal officers'. So it is difficult to determine the electors of Gopala. It can also be suggested that Gopala, a military adventurer succeeded in restoring peace and order by putting an end to the forces of lawlessness and popular support came his way after his initial success.

Election

After the death of the Gauda king Shashanka, a century of anarchy and confusion ensued in Bengal. This situation is described by the Sanskrit phrase matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation in which the big fish prey on the smaller ones). It was during these times that Gopala came to power around 750 CE. He was already a leading military general by that time.

The Khalimpur copper plate of Dharmapala alludes to Gopal's election in the following stanza:

“Matsyanyayam apakitum prakritibhir Lakshmiya karam grahitah Sri Gopala iti kshitisa-sirsam chudamani-tatsubha

To put an end to the state of affairs similar to what happens among fishes, the prakriti made the glorious Gopala, the crest jewel of the heads of kings, take the hand of Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune.
The Sanskrit word prakriti is suggestive of "people" in general. The Tibetan Buddhist lama Taranatha (1575–1634), writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on the night following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne.

The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his subjects, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary tribal societies of the region. The stanza in the Khalimpur copper plate is an eulogy, and uses the word prakriti figuratively.
Based on the different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, the different


Historians estimate Gopala's reign as follows:
HistorianEstimate of Gopala's reign
RC Majumdar (1971)750–770
AM Chowdhury (1967)756-781
BP Sinha (1977)755-783
DC Sircar (1975–76)750-775


Reign and legacy



According to Manjusrimulakalpa, Gopala died at the age of 80, after a reign of 27 years. Not much is known about his life or military career, but at the time of his death, Gopala had bequeathed a large kingdom to his son Dharmapala (770-810 CE). No records are available about the exact boundaries of Gopala's kingdom, but it might have included almost all of the Bengal region. His son and successor Dharmapala greatly expanded the kingdom, making it one of the most powerful empires in contemporary India.

Religion
A few sources written much after Gopala's death mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. Taranatha attests that Gopala was a staunch Buddhist and a major patron of Buddhism


Odantapuri (also called Odantapura or Uddandapura) was a Buddhist Mahavihara in what is now Bihar, India. It was established by the Pala Emperor Gopala I in the 8th century. It is considered the second oldest of India's Mahaviharas and was situated in Magadha.

Acharya Sri Ganga of Vikramashila was a student at this Mahavihara. According to the Tibetan records there were about 12,000 students at Odantapuri which was situated at a mountain called Hiranya Prabhat Parvat and by the bank of the river Panchanan.


Odantapuri University (Bihar) held a large library of millions of Hindu & Buddhist books. It too was destroyed by Khilji and a fortress was raised on the site of the university. The library on site was a 3 storied structure with beautiful courtyards & terracotta decorations. 

In the modern era, it is situated in Bihar Sharif, headquarters of Nalanda district.







UTTARAPATHASVAMIN DHARMAPALA SON OF DODA - IMMORTAL RAJPUT



Dharmapala (ruled 8th century) was the second ruler of the Pala Empire of Bengal region in the Indian Subcontinent. He greatly expanded the boundaries of the empire, and made the Palas a dominant power in the northern and eastern India. He was the son and successor of Gopala, the founder of the Pala Dynasty. 


Udayasundari- katha is 11th century text written by soddhala 


In this text, Emperor Dharmapala is said to belong to Mandhata vamsha ( mandhata was King of Ikshvaku dynasty ) 

Emperor Dharmapala directly ruled over the present-day Bengal and Bihar, and installed a nominee at Kannauj. The Pala chronicles also claim that several other rulers of North India acknowledged his suzerainty Based on the different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, the different historians estimate Dharmapala's reign as follows:-

Historian Estimate of reign

RC Majumdar (1971)770-810
AM Chowdhury (1967)781-821
BP Sinha (1977)783-820
DC Sircar (1975–76)775-812

Expansion of the empire


Dharamapala directly ruled over the present-day Bengal and Bihar regions. Since the extent of Gopala's kingdom is not known, it is uncertain if Dharmapala inherited these territories or acquired them through conquests.

He also became dominant in other areas of North India, but the exact details of his victories are not available. It is known that he defeated Indraraja (or Indrayudha), the ruler of Kanauj, who was a vassal of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. He then handed over the throne to his own nominee Charkayudha, and held an imperial court at Kannauj. According to the Khalimpur copper plate issued by Dharmapala, this court was attended by the rulers of Bhoja (possibly Vidarbha), Matsya (Jaipur region), Madra (East Punjab), Kuru (Delhi region), Yadu (possibly Mathura, Dwarka or Simhapura in the Punjab), Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara and Kira (Kangra Valley). These kings accepted the installation of Chakrayudha on the Kannauj throne, while "bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling". Some historians have speculated that all these kingdoms might have been the vassal states of the Pala empire. Such claims seem exaggerated: the rulers of these regions may have paid obeisance to Dharmapala, but maintained their autonomy.

The Kannauj dispute resulted in a struggle between Dharmapala and the Pratihara king Vatsaraja. Vatsaraja defeated Dharmapala in a battle fought near Prayag. Shortly after this, Vatsaraja himself was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva of southern India. After Vatsaraja's defeat, Dharmapala regained the control of Kannauj, but was defeated by Dhruva.However, soon after this, Dhruva returned to his southern kingdom, and thus, Dharmapala did not lose much in this quick chain of events. These events had left the Pratiharas badly mauled, which indirectly helped Dharmapala. After Dhruva's death in 793 CE, the Rashtrakutas were weakened by a war of succession. Taking advantage of this situation, Dharmapala recaptured Kannauj and placed his vassal Chakrayudha on the throne. He became the most powerful ruler in North India, and declared himself as Uttarapathasvamin ("Lord of the North").



According to the Monghyr (Munger) copper plate, Dharmapala offered prayers at Kedar (possibly Kedarnath) and Gokarna (variously identified with Gokarna in Nepal, Gokarna in Karnataka or a place in Orissa. This indicates that his position as a sovereign was accepted by most rulers, although this was a loose arrangement unlike the empire of the Mauryas or the Guptas. The other rulers acknowledged the military and political supremacy of Dharmapala, but maintained their own territories. 

One tradition also claims that Nepal was a vassal state of the Pala Empire during his reign.
Sometime later, Dharmapala faced another attack by the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II conquered Kannauj, making Chakrayudha his vassal. This brought Dharmapala and Nagabhata II into a military conflict near Munger. Dharmapala suffered a defeat, but in a repeat of history, the Rashtrakutas invaded the Pratihara kingdom. Nagabhata II was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king and Dhruva's son Govinda III. Govinda III then proceeded to Kannauj, and subdued both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala.

Like his father, Govinda III then returned to his kingdom in the south. Once again, Dharmapala re-established his authority in North India. Dharamapala remained the dominant ruler in North India till the end of his life.


Dharmapala ruled for about 40 years, and was succeeded by his son Devapala.


Patronage to Buddhism


Somapura Mahavihara is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian Subcontinent built by Dharmapala; it became a World Heritage Site in 1985.
Dharmapala was a great patron of Buddhism. He revived the Nalanda university and founded the Vikramshila university which later evolved into a great learning center of Buddhism. He built the great Vihara at Somapuri in Verendri and the Vihara in Paharpur. Taranath also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronizing the Buddhist author Hariibhadra. Buton Rinchen Drub credits Dharmapala with building the monastery at Uddandapura (Odantapuri), although other Tibetan accounts such as that of Taranatha, state that it was magically built and then entrusted to Devapala.


Epigraphs


The epigraphs from Dharmapala's reign include:
Bodhgaya Stone Inscription (Kesava Prasasti)
Dated in the 26th regnal year, this inscription is a work of Kesava, who was the son of sculptor Ujjala. It records the establishment of an image of Chaturmukha (four-faced) Mahadeva and the excavation of a lake at the cost of 3000 drammas (coins) at Mahabodhi.

Khalimpur Copper Plate

Dated in the 32nd regnal year, this copper plate is inscribed by Tatata, who was the son of Subhata and grandson of Bhojata. It records Dharmapala's defeat of Indrayudha and the installation of his tributary Chakrayudha at Kannauj. It states that the kings of Bhoja, Matsya, Madra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavana, Avanti, Gandhara and Kira (possibly Kangra) attended the imperial assembly and approved it. It further states that Dharmapala granted four villages to a feudal lord called Naryanavarman for the construction and maintenance of a temple dedicated to the Lord Nanna-Narayana, with the boundaries of the donated villages including a shrine constructed for the Goddess Kadamvari.

Nalanda Copper Plate

This plate is partially damaged due to burning. The name of the donor is not clear, but his father's name is Dharmadatta. It records the gift of a village Uttarama, situated in the Gaya visaya (district) of the Nagar bhukti (division). 


The Murshidabad Copper-Plate

The inscription records the donation of uncertain numbers of land plots in several settlements in Koṭīvarṣa-viṣaya of Puṇḍravardhana-bhukti, locatable in North Bengal, to the Buddhist saṃghas belonging to three facilities established by mahāsāmanta Bhadraṇāga and his wife Saṇhāyikā in the village of Antarāvanikā and in Somapura-mahāvihāra. The information contained in the inscription has important implications for the activities of the subordinate rulers generally called sāmantas and the character of the mahāvihāra.

Nalanda Stone Inscription

This inscription is a work of the artisans Kese, Savvo, Vokkaka and Viggata. It is inscribed on a stupa sculpture with carvings that depict seated Buddha figures. It records Vairochana as the person who commissioned this deed, describing him as a brilliant and valiant man who lived during the rule of Dharmapala.

Valgudar Image Inscription

It records the dedication of an image of god Madhusrenika by Ajhuka, the wife of Sato, in the city of Krimila.

Paharpur Seals

These two seals were discovered from the Somapura Mahavihara. Both depict a dharma chakra flanked by antelopes, and state that they were issued by the monks belonging to a vihara at Somapura, which was established by Dharmapala.


Coin 25 is the first and only known coin of the great Pala king Dharmapala. The Palas were a major dynasty who ruled Bengal and a large part of the surrounding country from the 8th through the 11th centuries. Through much of this period, they were locked in a fierce struggle for the control of the Indian heartland, represented by the city of Kanauj in what is now Uttar Pradesh, with two other kingdoms, the Rashtrakutas of Maharashtra and Karnataka (builders of the temple at Ellora and the famous Elephanta Cave temple near Mumbai) and the Pratiharas of Gujarat. See this map on Wikipedia illustrating this struggle. Dharmapala defeated these two rivals and installed his proxy on the throne in Kanauj.
The coin is in the style of late Gupta and post-Gupta coinage from Bengal. It shows the king mounted on a horse left, brandishing a spear at an animal at left. The legend at right identifies the issuer: Sriman Dharmapala. The reverse shows the goddess Lakshmi seated on a lotus, holding a long-stemmed lotus flower in each hand, and flanked by sacred vessels.
One very interesting aspect of this coin is the animal at the left on the obverse. At first blush, one would assume it is a lion, as the theme of the lion-slaying king was a standard Gupta theme (see coin 18 above). However, the snout of the animal is not very lion-like at all; rather, it looks more like a boar's. I would like to suggest the possibility that the animal is intentionally ambiguous and represents both a lion and a boar. The lion was the dynastic symbol of the Rashtrakutas and the boar was the dynastic symbol of the Pratiharas. I believe the coin may have been a propaganda piece: it could have been meant to show Dharmapala as the conqueror of both his major enemies.


Coin 28 is, I believe, a unique and previously unpublished gold coin of the King Samanta Deva, a member of the last Hindu dynasty to rule in what is now Afghanistan, the Hindu Shahis of Kabul. The silver coins of this ruler are quite common, but, as far as I know, this is the only known gold coin of the type. It shows the King mounted right and holding a standard on the obverse, and a couchant bull left topped by the legend Sri Samanta Deva on the reverse.
To see the approximate geographical location of where this coin was issued, look for the letter A on this map.